The division of governmental authority into three branches of government — legislative, executive, and judicial — each with specified duties on which neither of the other branches can encroach; the constitutional doctrine of checks and balances by which the people are protected against tyranny. Cf. DIVISION OF POWERS. [Cases: Constitutional Law 50–80(4). C.J.S. Constitutional Law […]
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separation of powers (1)分权 即将政府机构一分为三：立法、行政和司法。每一个分支都有特定的职责范围，任何其他分支不得侵犯。 (2)分权与制衡原则 美国宪法所确立的一项原则。依布兰代斯〔Brandeis〕大法官所言，这一原则在1787年制宪会议上采纳，其目的不在于提高政府效率，而在于保护人民免受暴政或独裁专政之苦。
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division of powers. The allocation of power between the national government and the states. • Under the Tenth Amendment, powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states or to the people. But today the Tenth Amendment provides only a limited check on Congress’s power to regulate the states. Cf. SEPARATION OF
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division of powers 〈美〉(联邦宪法规定的联邦和州之间的)政府权力划分；分权(→separation of powers)
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checks and balances 制衡原则；制约与平衡原则 指每一政府部门皆具有对抗其他任何部门行为的能力，从而不致出现任何单一部门操纵整个政府的权力和职能的理论。如在美国，行政部门可通过行使否决权〔veto power〕制约立法机关；而只要达到充分多数，立法机关则可推翻任一否决。 (→separation of powers)
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A privilege, based on the constitutional doctrine of separation of powers, that exempts the executive branch of the federal government from usual disclosure requirements when the matter to be disclosed involves national security or foreign policy. Cf. executive immunity under IMMUNITY(1). [Cases: Witnesses 216. C.J.S. Witnesses §§ 361–364.]
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checks and balances. The theory of governmental power and functions whereby each branch of government has the ability to counter the actions of any other branch, so that no single branch can control the entire government. • For example, the executive branch can check the legislature by exercising its veto power, but the legislature can,
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delegation doctrine 〈美〉授权原则 授权是指将宪法赋予某一政府部门的权力授予另一政府部门的行为。授权原则主要是基于权力分立〔separation of powers〕理念，限制国会将其立法权移交其他政府部门，尤其是行政部门的能力。美国宪法第一条第一款规定：「本宪法所授予的全部立法权，均属于由参议院和众议院组成的合众国国会。」因而，如果美国国会一定要独享这些立法权，那么没有其他部门能涉足这一领域似乎顺理成章。由此，国会立法权不能被让渡自然显而易见。然而，事实并非如此。由于国会既无时间又无精力对其政策和计划细节进行立法，在整个美国历史上立法权的授予始终存在。但立法权的授予仍必须受到某种限制，一般认为，只要国会在授予行政机关立法权时，确定了可以理解的原则〔intelligible principle〕，这一授权即合法成立。该词亦称nondelegation doctrine。 (→legislative veto)
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declaratory theory. The belief that judges’ decisions never make law but instead merely constitute evidence of what the law is. • This antiquated view — held by such figures as Coke and Blackstone — is no longer accepted. “There are … at least three good reasons why the declaratory theory should have persisted for some
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Mississippi v. Johnson 〈美〉密西西比州诉约翰逊案 美国最高法院于1867年4月以9比0作出裁判的一起案件。1867年3月美国国会颁布了《重建法》〔Reconstruction Act〕，该法授予在南部邦联〔confederacy〕十个未重建州〔unrestored states〕由总统任命的武装司令官〔military commanders〕政治权力，要求这些州制定授予前奴隶投票权的新宪法。密西西比州向最高法院提出动议〔motion〕，以该法违宪为由要求最高法院阻止总统约翰逊〔Andrew Johnson〕实施该法。尽管约翰逊总统强烈反对《重建法》，但他认为密西西比州的行为是对总统权力的一种威胁，因而命令司法部长〔Attorney General〕反对此项动议。美国最高法院一致认为法院无权阻止总统执行某一被指控违宪的法律，它承认在1803年的马伯里诉麦迪逊一案中，最高法院虽已肯定其享有命令行政官员履行法定义务的权力，但却认为此项权力仅含无裁量权的执行义务〔ministerial duties〕，而不包含具有广泛裁量权和涉及行使政治判断〔political judgment〕的行政义务〔executive duties〕；总统的独特地位赋予其实施法律的宪法责任，法院无权限制他履行此项职责，尽管他一旦如此行事，他的行为必须接受法院审查。此案的判决并非司法胆怯的表现，相反，它建立在这一被广泛接受的共识之上：阻止某一法律的实施将危及权力分立〔separation of powers〕。
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